Archive for the ‘Mechanical engineering’ Category

With opportunities in gas processing, electricity generation and gas storage, our client has opportunities for Electrical, Mechanical and Chemical graduate engineers. Our client has an exciting opportunity for graduates to join engineering professionals and apply your technical knowledge.  You will have a 10 week placement working with one of UK’s largest intergrated energy suppliers.  Seven (7) internships available.  Locations in Heysham or Barrow, Langage, Brigg, Barry, King’s Lynn, Easington or Hedon (accommodation provided by client).

REF: GI057

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Motors and Drives – A Practical Technology Guide by Dave Polka.
Publisher: ISA

Subject Area: Mechanics & Mechanical Engineering

Description: This practical reference introduces engineering concepts of motors and drives in a way that can be easily understood by both engineers unfamiliar with the technology and technicians who are technically literate but not accustomed to complex theory and mathematics.

It features simple explanations, summaries, review questions, glossaries, and reference tables for formulas and conversions.  Design engineers, automation and control specialists, maintenance technicians, and students will find this to be an invaluable resource both as a tutorial and desk reference.

Read the book online as part of the Knovel Library.  Access to this resource is limited to UVa faculty and students only from this URL.

PT Kao

March 9th, 2010

PT. Kao Indonesia subsidiary of Kao Corporation is one of the leading multinational companies in consumer goods. The company has various products to fulfill and satisfy consumer needs. In nowadays business the company has implemented integrated business system and quality management procedures to pursue consumer satisfaction. We are looking for qualified candidates for the position as:
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Summary of the Medical Device Contract Manufacturing and
Medical Prototype Design Product Development Process

 Medical Device Development Phase II Feasibility

A. Verification of Concept Prototype

Phase two of the medical device contract manufacturing process focuses on the technological product risks and how these risks will be overcome. It may be necessary to test the capability of a medical prototype design concept before further deliberation is given to it. In this situation, a verification of concept prototype is built. After the development of the prototype, a prototype approval meeting is planned. Verification of concept medical prototypes is more often a simply constructed prototype model. This reveals only the features that are in question and proves their capability. The primary objective of a verification of concept prototype model is to help develop a medical device prototype which is going to be ready for medical device contract manufacturing.

Initially, the verification of concept prototypes may be scale models, as in the case of some large products, or models made of other more easily formed materials. Sometimes a verification of concept prototype may include only certain features of our medical prototype design. They may also be created so that we can perform some feasibility testing on our conceptual design, if it is a relatively new and unique idea. Often, with the development of verification of concept medical prototypes, it is not practical to have them created out of the same material that will be used for the final product. For instance, machined steel may be utilized for a verification of concept medical prototype instead of casting. Cast plastic may be utilized as opposed to injection-molded pieces, or other methods that lend themselves to lower-cost verification of concept medical prototyping. The development of prototypes in many industries is even a specialized field for technicians because prototype cost can be significant in the overall research and development process.

B. Alpha Prototype

During the medical device contract manufacturing process, once the verification of concept for medical prototype design is approved, the alpha prototype test plan is to be written. This test proposal is generated prior to the design of the alpha prototype. This written alpha medical prototype test plan document ensures that the required operation of the unit is accounted for and explains in detail the testing requirements that the alpha medical prototype must meet. After authorization of the alpha test plan, the alpha prototype is designed and detailed to meet the design specifications. The overall goal of the alpha medical prototype design is to create a functioning prototype that meets all of the medical device design specifications. Realistically, final production tooling is not accessible at this juncture, so rapid prototyping procedures are usually utilized. ProengineerPortal uses several different prototyping procedures to rapidly produce plastic part designs and injection molding designs without the necessity for costly tooling or industrial design services. Upon successful completion of the alpha medical prototype testing, an evaluation meeting is held to assess the results of the testing and to determine where changes are necessary. These changes will be built-in to the beta medical prototype design, which would be the next step in the product development.

What makes the Unreasonable Institute Finalist Marketplace www.unreasonableinstitute.org so compelling that I can’t stop writing about it? Well, for one thing, it’s a contest – and I love a contest, especially if it’s something I get to vote in – and couldn’t win if my life depended on it. For another thing, it introduces me to a bunch of young people that are doing such amazing things, it makes me feel hopeful about the future. Zehra Ali, head of Ghonsla is one of those high-impact social entrepreneurs that I really, really want to see go to the UI’s business incubator — and then watch her ideas fly.

Zehra is 24 years old, Pakistani, a recent graduate of MIT in Mechanical Engineering and Technology & Policy, and fixated on the idea of creating housing and energy solutions for the global poor. Her first line of fire: corrugated galvanized iron roofs that cover the homes of about 1 billion people in the world.

Zehra with village women & her insulation

CGI-covered homes are hot in the summer, cold in the winter, and require lots of wood to heat in cold climates like Pakistan, contributing to deforestation and indoor air pollution that is quite toxic. Yet after the devastating earthquake in Pakistan in 2005, 8.5 million sheets of CGI were distributed to rebuild homes. Zehra has a better idea.

A home with fresh Ghonsla insulation

In 2007, working with faculty at MIT and her team in Developmental Entrepreneurship, Zehra developed Ghonsla (meaning “nest” in Urdu). It’s an R3 insulation material that is made of readily available, renewable and waste materials like straw and resin, is 30-40% cheaper than other insulating materials in Pakistan, and will pay for itself in one year in firewood savings alone. What’s more, it can be produced, distributed, and installed locally, giving a boon to the Pakistan economy, where Zehra is already partnering with Packages, Ltd. (a large Pakistani corporation), microfinance and social organizations to organize financing, technology promotion and outreach to other communities.

The village middle school, before insulation by Ghonsla

Her pilot build of 12 houses and a school in an earthquake-affected village in Northern Pakistan allowed Zehra and her team to test the Ghonsla product and monitor its impact on income, indoor air pollution and wood consumption – as well as the families’ comfort. She came away sobered by the inadequate and energy-inefficient housing conditions she saw, filled with ideas for further R&D to improve the product and its market potential, and completely inspired by the resilience of the people of Pakistan and their eagerness to turn adversity into opportunity if given the slightest support and access to resources.

In the school she helped insulate, the students wrote on the newly insulated walls that were keeping them warm through the bitter cold: “Simple living and high thinking is the motto of a great people.”  For great people like Zehra and her team, my $100 today goes to Ghonsla. http://www.unreasonableinstitute.org/finalists/index.php?action=about_pro&proId=171 Live long and prosper!

Picky about Trash

March 3rd, 2010

Robot Sorts Plastic Recyclables From Trash.

The Daily Telegraph (UK) (3/2, Demetriou) reported on a “device, created by Mitsubishi Electric Engineering Corp and Osaka University researchers, [that] identifies different plastic materials among rubbish and sorts them into piles.” The robot “uses five laser beams and sensors to detect a range of different plastics for recycling purposes.” Plastic recycling in Japan is comparatively limited, and the new device “aims to boost plastic recycling levels by identifying six different types of plastics that can be recycled and sorted from general rubbish collections.”

Reposted from the March 3, 2010 ASEE First Bell.

Hannibal, Max and Me

March 3rd, 2010

I hate electricity.  I love what it allows me to do but I just don’t understand it.  I sat through an in-house safety training session on arc flash, which I actually understood – there is a huge burst of energy through a “fault” that melts and actually vaporizes the copper conductor, which expands 7,000 times at Mach 2 and 1 million degrees F (made up numbers but the premise is correct).  It’s one heck of an explosion.  During a break I was asking our electrical engineers what the difference between a neutral and ground was, the flow of electrons, the consumption of energy.  They may have just as well been explaining how to play “Teenage Wasteland” on the synthesizer for The Who (my entire musical career consists of 2 weeks of saxophone lessons in 5th grade and then I broke my arm – game over).

Typically, electrical systems are explained in terms of fluid systems.  Voltage equals pressure. Current equals flow, etc.  I interviewed one guy with my normal mechanical engineering quiz and he was explaining mechanical systems with electrical ones.  I had to laugh.  A couple questions downstream I asked my question – without using an electrical analogy, I said!

I’ve done a few electrical things in our house – changed a couple switches to the mechanical twist timer thingies and I replaced one crappy fluorescent fixture with and incandescent fixture – so I can see my clothes in the morning!  It’s on for 30 seconds per day.  Ok.

My electrician career ended earlier this winter.  I was trying to install one of those push button timers – 5, 10, 15, 30 minutes and it turns off – to save 25 kWh/year on my garage lighting.  I pull out the instructions.  Attach the black wire to the black one, green, red, white, etc.  Ok.  I pull my switch out of the wall box – I have two blacks and a white – great, just great.  I gave it a shot, replaced the thing, went downstairs to throw the breaker, came back up – nothing.  Let me try again.  Downstairs, upstairs, screw, twist, cram, throw the switch.  It works!  The timer is clicking through its settings.  Before stuffing it all in the box and buttoning it up I go outside to make sure the lights are on, just in case.  Hell no!  I’m done!  I give up.  I’m wasting my precious weekend.  Downstairs, upstairs…zzzzzt.  I was shocked.  Somehow I had gone downstairs, gotten sidetracked and didn’t open the breaker.  So I almost got barbequed.  Never again!  I should have taken a hint from the timer switch package.  It looked like it had been purchased and returned about a dozen times.  At least I’m not the most electrically ignorant guy on the planet.

I didn’t try this to save money.  I’m just never home during the week so it was really to save time and hassle, but this is beside the point.  The point is, some commercial and industrial end users think, why do a study?  Why hire somebody who knows energy efficiency?  “We know what needs to be done.  Why not just hire a contractor and get it done.”  Why not just have Hannibal and his pal Max Cady to drop by to check on my house while I’m out of town?

First, contractors sell stuff.  I find it interesting that the vendor’s answer to compressed air system problems is always a new compressor set to operate at just a little higher pressure.  Nevermind the capillary tube they have for a header.  Could that be a problem?  A contractor’s path toward a more efficient heating plant is a new boiler – a conventional non-condensing shiny unit beside the dingy old one that can be tuned to achieve as good or even better efficiency.

Second, on the flip side, if they can’t make money on it, they wouldn’t spot an inferno of cash if it singed their eyebrows.  Last week I was getting an explanation of a boiler plant I have never seen.  It was from a facility manager who thinks they’re paying excessively for energy in their new 200,000 square foot facility.  They want retrocommissioning (RCx).  They have condensing boilers running 190F water.  Ok.  Turn a screw and save $6,000 per year.  Not a new boiler.  Not new controls.

I’m probably roughing up vendors and contractors a bit excessively.  I’m sure some of them understand some things about energy efficiency beyond the sales brochure.  I know one such excellent contractor, personally.  We on the other hand revel in polar opposite – reducing energy bills in a big way for practically no cost.  When a significant capital expense like a new control system is warranted for long-term value, we will recommend it.

Our challenge is our product, a service, is a complete unknown to a facility owner.  You buy it and wait to see what happens.  Wait a minute.  This sounds like buying mutual funds.  However, unlike the broker, investment in expert RCx has a very high probability of saving substantial money.  You might as well fling darts at the mutual fund tables as opposed to spending money on a mutual fund advisor.  Since they ARE the market, their odds of being right are 50% no matter what they say.  Conversely, paying a decent RCx guy is like finding money on the ground.  Just squat and pick it up, and move on to the next pile.

written by Jeffrey L. Ihnen, P.E., LEED AP

NIT, Rourkela has launched a Summer Internship Programme with an objective to encourage ambitious br

Written by Dewi Saputri (PT. PLN Pembangkitan PLTGU Cilegon), hb

Saturday, 07 February 2009 16:53



PLTGU Cilegon menggunakan phosphate treatment untuk mengontrol pH pada sistem boiler water. Phosphate treatment dipilih karena lebih menguntungkan dibanding caustic soda (NaOH) treatment yang telah dikenal lebih dulu. Dengan caustic treatment, resiko terjadinya korosi di boiler drum sangat tinggi.

Namun dengan phosphate treatment pada boiler tekanan tinggi saat kondisi pembebanan berubah-ubah fluktuatif yang mengharuskan boiler sering online-offline, dapat berpotensi menimbulkan terjadinya fenomena phosphate hide-out. Phosphate hide-out yang muncul dapat menyebabkan sulitnya mengontrol pH vs phosphate sesuai target sehingga dapat terjadi serious corrosion pada boiler dan overheating akibat deposition dari phosphate. Dalam upaya untuk menjaga kualitas air pada sistem boiler water dan untuk mencegah terjadinya korosi dan deposit pada boiler, maka perlu dikaji mengenai terjadinya fenomena phosphate hide-out pada sistem boiler water sehingga tidak mengurangi life-time boiler untuk proses produksi listrik.



I. PENDAHULUAN

Pembangkit listrik tenaga gas & uap menggunakan air baku yang dijadikan uap di dalam boiler untuk menggerakkan turbin uap yang di-couple dengan generator untuk menghasilkan listrik. Setelah menggerakkan turbin, uap akan terkondensasi untuk dijadikan uap kembali. Pada persiapan air baku diperlukan kualitas selain kuantitas. Kualitas air pada sistem boiler water dapat dikontrol dengan phosphate treatment atau dengan caustic soda (NaOH) treatment. Phosphate dan caustic dalam boiler water digunakan sebagai sumber alkalinity untuk mencegah korosi di boiler.

PLTGU Cilegon memilih phosphate treatment karena dengan caustic soda treatment, resiko korosi sangat tinggi karena terbentuknya local konsentrasi yang mencapai puluhan ribu ppm dari caustic soda terutama di area high heat flux (seperti di wall tube) dan di horizontal tube. Phosphate treatment dipilih untuk menghindari terjadinya efek yang tidak diinginkan ini.

Pada phosphate treatment, konsentrasi phosphate dan pH dikontrol dengan penggunaan campuran disodium phosphate (Na2HPO4, Na/PO4=2.0) dan trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4, Na/PO4=3.0), sehingga target pH dan phosphate pada boiler water bisa tercapai, dengan tetap secara efektif mempertahankan konsentrasi free caustic dalam nilai yang sangat rendah. Free caustic terbentuk dengan reaksi sbb : Na3PO4 + H2O ↔ Na2HPO4 + NaOH Secara teori, perbandingan mol Na:PO4 dikontrol pada nilai maksimum 3:1. Jika Na:PO4 > 3:1, akan terbentuk free caustic. Coordinated phosphate program menggunakan acuan Na:PO4 sedikit di bawah 2.8, sedangkan congruent program sedikit di bawah 2.6.


II. FENOMENA PHOSPHATE HIDE-OUT

2.1 Faktor Penyebab Terjadinya Phosphate Hide-Out

Fenomena phosphate hide-out terjadi pada boiler tekanan tinggi (>160 bar), pada kondisi pembebanan yang fluktuatif dan pada siklus beban yang mengharuskan boiler sering online-offline. Perubahan pola pembebanan ini menyebabkan temperature dan pressure boiler tube metal berubah-ubah, hal tersebut menyebabkan kelarutan dan fasa kesetimbangan phosphate antara yang terdeposit vs yang terlarut berubah-ubah. Akibatnya konsentrasi phosphate di bulk water dan yang terdeposit menjadi berubah-ubah, mengakibatkan sulitnya mengontrol pH dan konsentrasi phosphate sesuai target. Saat boiler pressure naik ke full load, phosphate akan hilang dari larutan, menempel pada dinding metal, diikuti dengan naiknya pH dan alkalinity boiler water sampai >9.7. Saat load berkurang atau shutdown, phosphate akan terlepas dan muncul lagi di boiler water menyebabkan pH drop,bisa sampai <9.0.

Fenomena hide-out terjadi melalui mekanisme reaksi reversible antara phosphate yang terlarut di boiler water dengan magnetite (lapisan passive Fe3O4 yang memang diharapkan terbentuk di dinding metal boiler) membentuk senyawa sodium iron phosphate. Reaksi ini bisa terjadi pada kondisi tekanan tinggi, dan lebih karena adanya disodium phosphate (Na2HPO4) dan monosodium phosphate (NaH2PO4).

2.2 Dampak Phosphate Hide-Out Terhadap Material

Phosphate hide-out tidak diinginkan karena bisa menyebabkan sulitnya mengontrol pH vs phosphate sesuai target, hingga menyebabkan terjadinya serious corrosion pada boiler yang dikenal sebagai acid phosphate corrosion. Disamping juga deposition dari phosphate yang bisa menyebabkan overheating. Saat load naik, phosphate seakan-akan seperti hilang dari larutan. Padahal sebenarnya phosphate ini terlepas dari larutan, menempel pada surface metal (hide-out), melalui mekanisme reaksi bolak-balik (kesetimbangan).

1) Deposition (Caustic Gouging Attack)

Jika ratio Na/PO4 naik di atas keseimbangannya (>2.8), maka akan terbentuk free caustic, biasanya di daerah high heat flux (wall tube), di posisi-posisi tube horizontal/melintang, di bawah deposit, atau di area-area dengan water flow yang terganggu (weld area, dll). Pada area-area tersebut, free caustic berpotensi terkonsentrasi secara local, sehingga mencapai ribuan ppm. Ini yang kemudian menyebabkan caustic gouging. Mekanisme reaksinya : 4NaOH + Fe3O4 → 2NaFeO2 + Na2FeO2 + 2H2O Setelah lapisan magnetite (Fe3O4) ini rusak, lebih lanjut NaOH bereaksi dengan base metal, menyebabkan attack yang dikenal sebagai caustic gouging. 2NaOH + Fe → Na2FeO2 + H2. Keberadaan H2 ini yang selanjutnya bisa menyebabkan hydrogen damage jika lebih lanjut terdifusi ke struktur batas butir metal. Jika ada indikasi hydrogen damage, biasanya boiler perlu dilakukan acid cleaning.

2) Corrosion (Acid Phosphate Attack)

Jika ratio Na/PO4 di bawah kesetimbangannya (<2.8), free caustic tidak terbentuk. Akan tetapi disodium dan mono sodium phosphate yang ditambahkan untuk menurunkan ratio Na/PO4 berpotensi mengendap dan menyerang (merusak) lapisan magnetite membentuk senyawa Sodium Iron Phosphate, dan terjadi acid phosphate attack. Mekanisme reaksinya : 2NaHPO4 + Fe2O3 → NaFeO4 + Na3PO4 +Fe2O3 + H2O Saat load turun, kesetimbangannya mengarah kembali ke aqueous phosphate, sehingga phosphate yang menempel tadi, lepas lagi, dan terlarut ke dalam boiler water, diikuti dengan turun dan stabilnya kembali pH boiler water. Kesimpulannya, caustic gouging terjadi jika ratio Na/PO4 di atas kesetimbangannya (>2.8). Oleh karena itu, coordinated & congruent phosphate program membatasi ratio ini maksimal 2.8 & 2.6. Akan tetapi dengan ratio ini, kemungkinan yang terjadi adalah acid phosphate attack. Dalam kaitan ini, secara umum acid phosphate attack lebih sering terjadi dibanding caustic attack mengingat NaOH mempunyai kelarutan yang lebih tinggi dan cenderung tinggal di larutan dibanding phosphate (disodium & monosodium).

2.3 Solusi Terjadinya Phosphate Hide-Out

Pada saat terjadi gejala phosphate hide-out, secepat mungkin menstabilkan pembebanan panas di boiler. Perlu dihindari untuk tidak mis-persepsi (menaikkan dosing phosphate saat diketahui konsentrasinya rendah), yang bisa menyebabkan overdose phosphate.

Equilibrium phosphate program selanjutnya dikembangkan menggantikan coordinated/congruent program, dimana treatment hanya dengan trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4) dengan konsentrasi yang relatif rendah dan mengontrol sedikit alkalinity hydroxide (OH). pH dikontrol antara 9.0 – 9.7, dengan konsentrasi phosphate dikontrol antara 2 – 4 ppm. Penggunaan Na2HPO4 dan NaH2PO4 dihilangkan sehingga mengurangi kemungkinan terjadinya hide-out.

Dengan penambahan Na3PO4 saja, ratio Na/PO4 teorinya jadi sekitar 3. Jika terjadi hide-out, karena PO4 mengendap, maka ratio-nya bisa naik >3, dan pembentukan free caustic bisa excessive. Hanya saja, pada Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment (EPT), konsentrasi PO4 dikontrol di bawah nilai kesetimbangannya, sehingga phosphate hide-out tidak terjadi. Akibatnya konsentrasi PO4 di boiler water akan stabil meskipun load berfluktuasi. Free NaOH yang terbentuk jadinya juga stabil, umumnya pada konsentrasi rendah, yang tidak menyebabkan localized concentration.

Reaksi berikut :

Na3PO4 + H2O ↔ Na2HPO4 + NaOH

Tiap mol Na3PO4 akan menghasilkan 1 mol NaOH yang dihasilkan di sini sebagai “captive” NaOH, pada saat larutan terevaporasi, tidak terjadi pemekatan konsentrasi, karena kesetimbangan akan bergeser ke kiri.

Berikut contoh acuan EPT untuk boiler tekanan tinggi (>160 bar) : pH 9.0 – 9.7 Free OH (as CaCO3) max 1 ppm PO4 Equilibrium (bervariasi sekitar 2 – 4 ppm, bahkan terkadang <2 ppm, tergantung karakteristik tiap boiler).

Walaupun demikian, chemistry operating targetnya tidak bisa disamakan satu aplikasi dengan aplikasi lainnya. Bahkan pada boiler yang beroperasi pada tekanan >160 bar, konsentrasi PO4 yang diperlukan untuk mendapatkan nilai kesetimbangannya bisa kurang dari 2 ppm.

Cara mendapatkan nilai kesetimbangan ini mudah saja, tambahkan PO4 secara berlebih ke boiler water untuk mendapatkan konsentrasi PO4 di atas kesetimbangannya. Hentikan penambahan, dan ikuti penurunan konsentrasi PO4 di bulk boiler water sample (karena hide-out).

Saat kesetimbangan PO4 tercapai, penurunan konsentrasi PO4 akan berhenti, dan inilah nilai kesetimbangan PO4 tersebut. Nilai ini dijadikan maksimum konsentrasi PO4 di boiler water. Konsentrasi PO4, pH, dan ratio Na/PO4 akan stabil pada range di bawah maksimum konsentrasi PO4 ini, meskipun beban boiler berfluktuasi.

Pada prinsipnya chemical yang digunakan hanya Na3PO4. Penambahan NaOH dilakukan hanya bila diperlukan saja untuk mengejar nilai pH, tapi normalnya dengan konsentrasi PO4 2 ppm saja, pH sudah akan berada di atas 9, sehingga penambahan OH tidak diperlukan. Chemical lain, seperti ammonia dan hydrazine juga terkadang digunakan. Ammonia untuk menjaga pH di Feed Water System, dan hydrazine untuk oxygen control.


III. KESIMPULAN

Fenomena phosphate hide-out pada sistem boiler water terjadi pada boiler tekanan tinggi (>160 bar), pada kondisi pembebanan yang fluktuatif dan pada siklus beban yang mengharuskan boiler sering online-offline. Phosphate hide-out dapat mengakibatkan terjadinya serious corrosion pada boiler (acid phosphate corrosion) dan juga deposition dari phosphate yang bisa menyebabkan overheating (caustic gouging).

Pada saat terjadi gejala phosphate hide-out, secepat mungkin menstabilkan pembebanan panas di boiler. Atau di-treatment dengan penambahan trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4) dengan konsentrasi yang relatif rendah dan mengontrol sedikit alkalinity hydroxide (OH). pH dikontrol antara 9.0 – 9.7, dengan konsentrasi phosphate dikontrol antara 2 – 4 ppm. Dengan demikian, konsentrasi PO4, pH, dan ratio Na/PO4 akan stabil, meskipun beban boiler berfluktuasi.

Fenomena phosphate hide-out pada sistem boiler water

Written by Dewi Saputri (PT. PLN Pembangkitan PLTGU Cilegon), hb

Saturday, 07 February 2009 16:53

Sensitisasi adalah cacat khas yang terjadi pada Austenitic dan nickel alloy. Pada suhu 900 – 1400 ºF (482 – 760 ºC) terbentuk chromium carbides Cr23C6 sepanjang butiran austenit. Hal ini terjadi karena hilangnya chromium (Cr) dari butiran austenitic sehingga menurunkan ketahanan korosi dari lapisan pasif (protective passive film). Batas butir akan menjadi anodik dan butirnya sendiri akan menjadi lebih katodik, sehingga batas butir akan lebih mudah terkorosi. Kejadian ini disebut sensitisasi (sensitization) atau disebut juga kerusakan las (weld decay) karena biasanya terjadi selama proses pengelasan disekitar HAZ ketika dipanaskan.

Chromium Carbide (Kromium karbida) sebagian besar terbentuk pada batas butir dan tidak terbentuk di dalam butiran itu sendiri. Hal ini terjadi karena adanya perbedaan laju difusi (diffusion rate) atom-atom Chromium (Cr) melewati volume butir dan sepanjang batas butir yang jenuh dengan ketidaksempurnaan dari kisi-kisi kristal.

Cara-cara untuk mencegah sensitisasi

  • Solution heat treatment (perlakuan panas dengan menggunakan larutan)

Pemanasan sampai di atas suhu 900 ºF/1038 ºC diikuti dengan quenching (pendinginan cepat) di air atau minyak. Selama fase pemanasan karbida krom (chromium carbide) akan larut dan dan pembentukan karbida krom akan tertindas oleh pendinginan yang cepat (tidak sempat terbentuk).

  • Mengurangi konsentrasi karbon

Sensitisasi dapat ditekan pada stainless steel karbon rendah (low carbon ), max.0.03% dengan akhiran L (304L, 316L, dll)

  • Penambahan elemen pembentuk karbida

Pembentukan kromium karbida dapat dihindari pada pada stainless steel austenitic yang distabilkan (321, 347) yang mengandung elemen pembentuk karbida seperti Titanium (Ti), Niobium (Ni), Tantalum (Ta), Zirconium (Zr). Heat treatment untuk stabilisasi seperti stainless steel austenitic 321 dan 347 akan lebih mudah terbentuk karbida dari elemen-elemen diatas dari pada pembentukan kromium karbida (chromium carbides).

referensi :

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich, Intergranular corrosion of stainless steels (sensitization)